Academic Publications Relating to the Driver Risk Index™

The Driver Risk Index™ ( DRI) is the commercial name for a driver behaviour assessment utilizing items from the Driver Stress Inventory (DSI: Matthews et al, 1996; 1997) and its previous version, the Driver Behaviour Inventory (DBI: Gulian et al, 1989).

The DRI also incorporates the Driver Coping Questionnaire (DCQ: Matthews et al, 1996; 1997) and the only lie scale developed especially for driver behaviour, the Driver Social Desirability Scale (DSDS: Lajunen, et al, 1997).

The DRI has gone therefore gone through the standard phases of development for such inventories, from the initial theoretical underpinning, through various methodological and statistical tests to practical use via an online completion format. However, today, the stress component has been complemented with various other dimensions of driver reactions and behaviours. It has been fairly reliably shown that the factors included are not general personality factors, and that they relate to various behaviours and reactions while driving mostly in simulators, but associations with in-car performance has also been reported.

The instrument has been tested as predictor of traffic accidents in at least four studies (Matthews, Dorn & Glendon, 1991; Matthews, Desmond, Joyner, Carcary & Gilliland, 1997; Matthews, Tsuda, Xin & Ozeki, 1999; Dorn, Stephen, Gandolfi & af Wåhlberg, submitted).

There is some early work showing its application to several professional driver groups such as police, bus and fleet drivers. The main application of the DRI is for organisations to address work related road safety and today, the DRI is the only scientifically developed driver risk assessment tool currently available for this purpose.

Below are the the publications reporting data from the Driver Stress Inventory, Driver Coping Questionnaire, Driver Fatigue Scale and other variants of the Driver Risk Index.

Brewer, A. M. (2000). Road rage: what, who, when, where and how? Transport Reviews, 20, 49-64.

Britt, T. W., & Garrity, M. J. (2003). An integrative model of road rage. Revue Internationale De Psychologie Sociale.Special Issue: Agression indirecte/Nondirect Aggression, 16(3), 53-79.

Carty, M., Stough, C., & Gillespie, N. (1998). The psychological predictors of work accidents and driving convictions in the transport industry. Safety Science Monitor, 3, 1-13.

Chen, L-. Y. (in press). Driver personality characteristics related to self-reported accident involvement and mobile phone use while driving. Safety Science,

Desmond, P. A., Matthews, G., & Bush, J. (2001). Individual differences in fatigue and stress states in two field studies of driving. In Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 45th Annual Meeting, pp. 1571-1575.

Dorn, L. (2005). Professional driver training and driver stress: Effects on simulated driving performance. In, G. Underwood. (Ed). Traffic and Transport Psychology, Elsevier: Amsterdam.

Dorn, L., & Garwood, L. (2005). Development of a psychometric measure of bus driver behaviour. Behavioural Research in Road Safety: 14th Seminar. London: Department for Transport.

Dorn, L., Stephen, L., Gandolfi, J. & af Wåhlberg, A. E. (submitted). Development of a self report measure of bus driver behaviour. Ergonomics.

Dorn, L., Glendon, A. I., Hoyes, T. W., Matthews, G., Davies, D. R., & Taylor, R. G. (1992). Group differences in driving performance. In G. B. Grayson (Ed.), Behavioural Research in Road Safety II, pp. Crowthorne: Transport Research Laboratory.

Dorn, L., & Matthews, G. (1992). Two further studies of personality correlates of driver stress. Personality and Individual Differences, 13, 949-951.

Dorn, L., & Matthews, G. (1995). Prediction of mood and risk appraisals from trait measures: two studies of simulated driving. European Journal of Personality, 9, 25-42.

Emo, A. K., Matthews, G., Funke, G., & Warm, J. S. (2004). Stress vulnerability, coping  and risk-taking behaviours during simulated driving. In Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 48th Annual Meeting, Human Factors and
Ergonomics Society, Santa Monica, CA,pp. 1228-1232.

Funke, G. J. (2004). The effects of stress and automation on performance in a simulated winter drive. Unpublished Masters Thesis, University of Cincinnati.

Funke, G. J. (2008). The effects of automation and workload on driver performance, subjective workload, and mood. ProQuest Information & Learning). Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering, 68(12-B)

Funke, G. J., Matthews, G., Warm, J.S., & Emo, A. (2007).  Vehicle automation: A remedy for driver stress? Ergonomics, 50, 1302-1323.

Gandolfi, J (2007). Development of a psychometric measure of police driver risk. PhD Thesis, Cranfield University

Gandolfi, J., & Dorn, L. (2005). Development of the Police Driver Risk Index. In L. Dorn (Ed.) Driver Behaviour and Training, Volume II, pp. 337-347. Aldershot: Ashgate. Second International Conference on Driver Behaviour and Training. Edinburgh 15-17 November, 2005.

Garwood, L., & Dorn, L. (2003). Stress vulnerability and choice of coping strategies in UK bus drivers. In L. Dorn (Ed.) Driver Behaviour and Training, pp. 55-64. Aldershot: Ashgate. First International Conference on Driver Behaviour and Training. Stratford-upon-Avon 11-12 November, 2003.

Glendon, A. I., Dorn, L., Matthews, G., Gulian, E., Davies, D. R. & Debney, L. M. (1993). Reliability of the Driving Behaviour Inventory. Ergonomics, 36, 719-726.

Gulian, E., Debney, L.M., Glendon, A.I., Davies, D.R., & Matthews, G. (1989) Coping with driver stress. In McGuigan, M.G., & Sime, W.E. (Eds.), Stress and tension control (Vol. 3), pp. 173-186. New York: Plenum.

Gulian, E., Glendon, A. I., Matthews, G., Davies, D. R., & Debney, L. M. (1988). Exploration of driver stress using self-reported data. In J. A. Rothengatter & R. A. de Bruin (Eds.) Road User Behaviour: Theory and Research (pp. 342-347). Maastricht: van Gorcum

Gulian, E., Glendon, A. I., Matthews, G., Davies, D. R., & Debney, L. M. (1990). The stress of driving: A diary study. Work and Stress, 4, 7-16.

Gulian, E., Matthews, G., Glendon, A. I., Davies, D. R., Debney L. M. (1989). Dimensions of driver stress. Ergonomics, 32, 585-602.

Hartley, L. R., & El Hassani, J. (1994). Stress, violations and accidents. Applied Ergonomics, 25, 221-230.

Hennessy, D. A., & Wiesenthal, D. L. (1997). The relationship between traffic congestion, driver stress and direct versus indirect coping behaviours. Ergonomics, 40, 348-361.

Hennessy, D. A., & Wiesenthal, D. L. (1999). Traffic congestion, driver stress, and driver aggression. Aggressive Behaviour, 25, 409-423.

Hennessy, D. A., & Wiesenthal, D. L. (2001). Gender, driver aggression, and driver violence: An applied evaluation. Sex Roles, 44, 661-676.

Hennessy, D. A., Wiesenthal, D. L., & Kohn, P. M. (2000). The influence of traffic congestion, daily hassles, and trait stress susceptibility of state driver stress: an interactive perspective. Journal of Applied Biobehavioral Research, 5, 162-179.

Hoare, P. N. (2001). Stress traits and coping styles as predictors of stress symptoms in bus drivers. Undergraduate thesis, University of Southern Queensland.

Källmén, H., & Wennberg, P. (2004). The validity of the Defence Mechanism Test: A review of empirical studies. In S. P. Shohov (Ed.) Advances in Psychology Research, Volume 27, pp. 249-275.

Kontogiannis, T. (2006) Patterns of driver stress and coping strategies in a Greek sample and their relationship to aberrant behaviors and traffic accidents, Accident Analysis and Prevention 38(5):913-24

Lajunen, T., Corry, A., Summala, H., & Hartley, L. (1998). Cross-cultural differences in drivers’ self-assessments of their perceptual-motor and safety skills: Australians and Finns. Personality and Individual Differences, 24, 539-550. 

Lajunen, T., & Summala, H. (1995). Driving experience, personality, and skill and safety-motive dimensions in drivers’ self-assessments. Personality and Individual Differences, 19, 307-318.

Lajunen, T., & Summala, H. (1996). Effects of driving experience, personality, and driver’s skill and safety-motive orientation on speed regulation and accidents. In International Conference on Traffic and Transport Psychology. Valencia, Spain.

Langford, C., & Glendon, A. I. (2002). Effects of neuroticism, extraversion, circadian type and age on reported driver stress. Work & Stress, 16(4), 316-334.

Lucas, J. L., & Heady, R. B. (2002). Flexitime commuters and their driver stress, feelings of urgency, and commute satisfaction. Journal of Business and Psychology, 16, 565-571.

Machin, M. A. (2003). Evaluating a fatigue management training program for coach drivers. In L. Dorn (Ed.) Driver Behaviour and Training, pp. 75-83. Aldershot: Ashgate. First International Conference on Driver Behaviour and Training. Stratford-upon-Avon 11-12 November, 2003.

Machin, M. A., & Hoare, P. N. (2008). The role of workload and driver coping styles in predicting bus drivers’ need for recovery, positive and negative affect, and physical symptoms. Anxiety, Stress & Coping: An International Journal, 21(4), 359-375.

Machin, M. A., & Hoare, P. N. (submitted). The role of adaptive and maladaptive driver coping styles in predicting fatigue, affective well-being and physical strain in bus drivers.

Matthews, G. (1993). Cognitive processes in driver stress. In Proceedings of the 1993 International Congress of Health Psychology (pp. 90-93). Tokyo: ICHP.

Matthews, G. (1996). Individual differences in driver stress and performance. In Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 40th Annual Meeting, Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, Santa Monica, CA, pp. 579-583.

Matthews, G. (2001a). Levels of transaction: A cognitive science framework for operator stress. In P. Hancock & P. Desmond (Eds.), Stress, Workload and Fatigue, pp. 5-33. Mahwah: Earlbaum.

Matthews, G. (2001b). A transactional model of driver stress. In P. Hancock & P. Desmond (Eds.), Stress, Workload and Fatigue, pp. 133-163. Mahwah: Earlbaum.

Matthews, G. (2002). Towards a transactional ergonomics for driver stress and fatigue. Theoretical Issues in Ergonomic Science, 3, 195-211.

Matthews, G., & Campbell, S.E. (2009) Sustained performance under overload: personality and individual differences in stress and coping. Theoretical Issues in Ergonomics Science, Vol. 10, No. 5, 417–442.

Matthews, G., & Desmond, P.A. (1995)Stress as a factor in the design of in-car driving enhancement systems. Le Travail Humain, 58, 109-129.

Matthews, G., & Desmond, P. A. (1998). Personality and multiple dimensions of task-induced fatigue: a study of simulated driving. Personality and Individual Differences, 25, 443-458.

Matthews, G., & Desmond, P. A. (2001). Stress and driving performance: Implications for design and training. In P.A. Hancock & P. A. Desmond (Eds.), Stress, Workload and Fatigue, pp. 211-231. Mahwah: Earlbaum.

Matthews, G., & Desmond, P.A. (2002) Task-induced fatigue states and simulated driving performance. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 55A, 659-686.

Matthews, G., Desmond, P. A., Joyner, L., Carcary, B., & Gilliland, K. (1996). Validation of the Driver Stress Inventory and the Driver Coping Questionnaire. Unpublished report. Also presented at the International Conference on Traffic and Transport Psychology, Valencia, Spain, 1996.

Matthews, G., Desmond, P. A., Joyner, L., Carcary, B., & Gilliland, K. (1997). A comprehensive questionnaire measure of driver stress and affect. In T. Rothengatter, & E. C. Vaya, Traffic and Transport Psychology: Theory and Application, pp. 317-324. Amsterdam: Pergamon.

Matthews, G., Joyner, L., & Newman, R. (1999). Age and gender differences in stress responses during simulated driving. In Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 43rd Annual Meeting, pp. 1007-1011. Santa Monica, CA: Human Factors and Ergonomics Society.

Matthews, G., Dorn, L., & Glendon, A. I. (1991). Personality correlates of driver stress. Personality and Individual Differences, 12, 535-549.

Matthews, G., Dorn, L., & Hoyes, T.W. (1992) Individual differences in driver stress and performance. In T. Lovesey (Ed.), Contemporary Ergonomics 1992, pp. 105-110. London: Taylor & Francis.

Matthews, G., Dorn, L., Hoyes, T. W., Davies, D. R., Glendon, A. I., & Taylor, R. G. (1998). Driver stress and performance on a driving simulator. Human Factors, 40, 136-149.

Matthews, G., Dorn, L., Hoyes, T. W., Glendon, A. I., Davies, D. R., & Taylor, R. G. (1992). Driver stress and simulated driving: Studies of risk taking and attention. In G. B. Grayson (Ed.), Behavioural Research in Road Safety III, pp. 1-10. Crowthorne: Transport Research Laboratory.

Matthews, G., Emo, A. K., & Funke, G. J. (2005). The Transactional Model of driver stress and fatigue and its implications for driver training. In L. Dorn (Ed.) Driver Behaviour and Training, Volume II, pp. 273-285. Aldershot: Ashgate. Second International Conference on Driver Behaviour and Training. Edinburgh 15-17 November, 2005.

Matthews, G., Quinn, C.E.J., & Mitchell, K.J. (1998) Rock music, task-induced stress and simulated driving performance.  In G. B. Grayson (Ed.), Behavioural research in road safety VIII, pp. 20-32. Crowthorne, Berks.: Transport Research Laboratory.

Matthews, G., Saxby, D.J., Funke, G.J., Emo, A.K., & Desmond, P.A. (in press). Driving in states of fatigue or stress. In D. Fisher, M. Rizzo, J. Caird, & J. Lee (Eds.), Handbook of driving simulation for engineering, medicine and psychology. Boca Raton, FL: Taylor and Francis

Matthews, G., Sparkes, T. J., & Bygrave, H. M. (1996). Stress, attentional overload and simulated driving performance. Human Performance, 9, 77-101.

Matthews, G., Tsuda, A., Xin, G., & Ozeki, Y. (1999). Individual differences in driver stress vulnerability in a Japanese sample. Ergonomics, 42, 401-415.

Maxwell, J. P., Grant, S., & Lipkin, S. (2005). Further validation of  the propensity for angry driving scale in British drivers. Personality and Individual Differences, 38, 213-224.

Öz, B., Özkan, T., & Lajunen, T. (2010). Professional and non-professional drivers’ stress reactions and risky driving. Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour, 13(1), 32-40.

Saxby, D.J., Matthews, G., Hitchcock, E., & Warm, J.S. (2007) Development of active and passive fatigue manipulations using a driving simulator. In Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 51st  Annual Meeting, pp. 1237-1241.  Santa Monica, CA: Human Factors and Ergonomics Society.

Saxby, D.J., Matthews, G., Hitchcock, E., & Warm, J.S. (2007) Fatigue States are Multidimensional: Evidence from Studies of Simulated Driving, In Proceedings of the Driving Simulator Conference, North America – Iowa City – September12-14th

Simon, F., & Corbett, C. (1996). Road traffic offending, stress, age, and accident history among male and female drivers. Ergonomics, 39, 757-780.

Spinale, M. F. (2008). The relationship among commuter stress, work engagement, and proactive behavior. ProQuest Information & Learning). Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering, 68(7-B)

Stanton, N.A., Young, M.S., Walker, G.H., Turner, H., & Randle, S. (2001) Automating the Driver’s Control Tasks, International Journal of Cognitive Ergonomics, 5(3), 221–236

Taubman, Ben-Ari, O. (2008). Motivational sources of driving and their associations with reckless driving cognitions and behavior. / sources motivationnelles de conduite et leurs corrélations avec les cognitions et comportements imprudents de conduite. European Review of Applied Psychology/Revue Européenne De Psychologie Appliquée, 58(1), 51-64.

af Wåhlberg, A. E. (2010). Social desirability effects in driver behaviour inventories. Journal of Safety Research, 41(2), 99-106.

Ward, N. J., Waterman, M., & Joint, M. (1998). Rage and violence of driver aggression. In G. B. Grayson (Ed.), Behavioural Research in Road Safety VIII, pp. 155-167. Crowthorne: Transport Research Laboratory.

Westerman, S. J., & Haigney, D. (2000). Individual differences in driver stress, error and violation. Personality and Individual Differences, 29, 981-998.

Wiesenthal, D. L., Hennessy, D. A., & Totten, B. (2000). The influence of music on driver stress. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 30, 1709-1719.